Diseases related to white cells. Leukocytosis

The condition in which white cells are present in greater numbers than normal is termed leukocytosis. It is usually caused by an increase in the number of granulocytes (especially neutrophils), some of which may be immature (myelocytes). Most often leukocytosis is the result of the presence of an infection, usually caused by pyogenic (pus-producing) organisms such as streptococcus, staphylococcus, gonococcus, pneumococcus, or meningococcus. Leukocyte counts of 12,000 to 20,000 per cubic millimetre during infections are not unusual. As the number of cells increases, the proportion of immature cells usually rises, perhaps because the demands on the leukocyte-producing tissues in the bone marrow have increased to the point at which there is an insufficient number of mature cells for delivery into the circulation. This picture of immaturity is referred to as a “shift to the left.” As the infection subsides, the number of younger forms and the total white cell count decrease and ultimatelyreturn to normal. During the period of repair following an inflammatory reaction, the monocytes may increase in number, and subsequently the lymphocytes will become more numerous.

Certain types of infection are characterized from the beginning by an increase in the number of small lymphocytes unaccompanied by increases in monocytes or granulocytes. Such lymphocytosis is usually of viral origin. Moderate degrees of lymphocytosis are encountered in certain chronic infections such as tuberculosis and brucellosis.

Infectious mononucleosis, caused by the Epstein–Barr virus, is associated with the appearance of unusually large lymphocytes (“atypical” lymphocytes). Those cells represent part of the complex defense mechanism against the virus, and they disappear from the blood when the attack of infectious mononucleosis subsides. Infectious mononucleosis occurs predominantly in persons from 10 to 30 years of age. It is thought to be transmitted by oral contact with exchange of saliva. Discomfort, fever, sore throat, and grippelike symptoms,together with enlargement of lymph nodes and spleen, characterize the condition. The blood serum contains an antibody (sheep cell or heterophil agglutinin) that is characteristic of the disease, but antibodies against the Epstein–Barr virus itself are more specific markers of the infection. The symptoms of this disease vary in severity in different persons, but often they are mild. Recovery takes place, as a rule, within several weeks.

Despite the immune response against the Epstein–Barr virus, the virus is never completely eliminated from the body. A small number of virus particles remain in latent form within B lymphocytes. In a normal person the immune system (the T lymphocytes in particular) keeps the latent viruses in check. If the natural responses of the immune system are suppressed (immunosuppression), however, the Epstein–Barr virus can emerge from its latent form and initiate a new round of infection. The Epstein–Barr virus is a member of the herpesvirus family, which also includes viruses that cause cold sores (herpes simplex type 1), genital ulcers (herpes simplex type 2), and shingles (herpes zoster) and the cytomegalovirus. All of these viruses show the property of latency, and in each case immunosuppression can lead to their activation. The most dramatic example of this can be found in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which causes a pronounced deficiency of T lymphocytes. Patients with AIDS can develop severe and even fatal herpesvirus infections.

Monocytosis, an increase in the number of monocytes in the blood, occurs in association with certain infectious processes, especially subacute bacterial endocarditis—inflammation of the lining of the heart—and malaria. Monocytosis also occurs when the bone marrow is recovering from a toxic injury.

Eosinophilia, an increase in the number of eosinophilic leukocytes, is encountered in many allergic reactions and parasitic infections. It is especially characteristic of infestation by trichina larvae, which are ingested when infected and poorly cooked pork or pork products areeaten.